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Behavior Problems Associated with Pain and Paresthesia
Pain is a subjective, aversive sensory and emotional experience and can cause or exacerbate problem behaviors. In this review, the biobehavioral model of pain is introduced and used to improve understanding by veterinarians of pain mechanisms and their re... morePain is a subjective, aversive sensory and emotional experience and can cause or exacerbate problem behaviors. In this review, the biobehavioral model of pain is introduced and used to improve understanding by veterinarians of pain mechanisms and their relationship with problem behaviors. A range of potential indicators of discomfort are presented, illustrated by selected cases from the authors’ behavior and pain referral clinics. Various myths exist around pain resulting in barriers to reporting assessment and treatment. Veterinarians should always consider discomfort in any case presenting with a problem behavior. less
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Behavior Changes Associated with Metabolic Disease of Dogs and Cats
Like many physical disorders, the clinical signs associated with metabolic diseases affecting thyroid, adrenal, and pancreatic function are reflective of nonspecific changes in behavior. Additionally, patients who have underlying disorders associated with... moreLike many physical disorders, the clinical signs associated with metabolic diseases affecting thyroid, adrenal, and pancreatic function are reflective of nonspecific changes in behavior. Additionally, patients who have underlying disorders associated with fear, anxiety, stress, conflict, and/or panic may be under treatment with medications that alter basal thyroid, glucose, and cortisol levels. Through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors associated with clinical signs caused by organic or iatrogenic endocrine disease, behaviors can be perpetuated and become persistent patterns. Screening all patients presenting with a primary behavior complaint or those with behavioral clinical signs of endocrine diseases is essential. Alleviating stress immediately while working up or treating metabolic disease reduces suffering and may stave off the adoption of behavior patterns more permanently. less
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Inflammation and Behavior Changes in Dogs and Cats
Sickness is a normal response to infections or stress triggered by proinflammatory cytokines that drive local and systemic inflammatory responses. Proinflammatory cytokines act on the brain causing the so called “sickness behavior,”which is thought to imp... moreSickness is a normal response to infections or stress triggered by proinflammatory cytokines that drive local and systemic inflammatory responses. Proinflammatory cytokines act on the brain causing the so called “sickness behavior,”which is thought to improve recovery but can become maladaptive in the long term. Chronic inflammation characterizes many diseases and there is some evidence that dogs and cats experience age-associated increases in inflammation, a condition named “inflammaging.” A complex and multifactorial relationship exists between these inflammatory mechanisms, pain, and psychological illness that may complicate veterinary diagnosis and affect the outcome. less
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The Effects of Fitness Training on Working Dog Behavior
Working dogs perform complex tasks that require both physical and behavioral soundness. Two case studies demonstrate how fitness training moderated arousal levels, facilitated training, and improved performance measures in different situations. Fitness tr... moreWorking dogs perform complex tasks that require both physical and behavioral soundness. Two case studies demonstrate how fitness training moderated arousal levels, facilitated training, and improved performance measures in different situations. Fitness training can be beneficial when integrated as part of a working dog’s training regimen because it can have a significant influence on their overall health, behavior, and ability to perform their working role effectively.
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Cognitive Changes Associated with Aging and Physical Disease in Dogs and Cats
Behavior changes may indicate primary physical disease or primary behavioral disorders in veterinary patients. It is imperative to recognize that secondary behavioral problems can develop due to medical causes. The incidence of systemic disease increases ... moreBehavior changes may indicate primary physical disease or primary behavioral disorders in veterinary patients. It is imperative to recognize that secondary behavioral problems can develop due to medical causes. The incidence of systemic disease increases with age and behavior manifestations can be similar to those expected with cognitive dysfunction syndrome. In this article, we review basic concepts of cognition, aging, and cognitive dysfunction syndrome. Additionally, we provide information regarding factors that influence cognition, and the role medical conditions have on the behavior of aging pets. less
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Separation-related Problems and Their Interaction with Physical Disease
The condition of separation-related problems (SRPs) is common in companion dogs and clinicians should be comfortable diagnosing it. There are numerous diagnoses related to physical disease that have clinical signs similar to SRP, that exacerbate SRP, or m... moreThe condition of separation-related problems (SRPs) is common in companion dogs and clinicians should be comfortable diagnosing it. There are numerous diagnoses related to physical disease that have clinical signs similar to SRP, that exacerbate SRP, or may cause regression in treatment of SRP. Common examples include conditions affecting the following systems: musculoskeletal, neurologic, gastrointestinal, and dermatologic. Therefore, it is important for clinicians to rule out causes of physical disease and address them accordingly. The signalment of the patient, medications they are receiving, and other behavioral comorbidities should also be considered. less
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The Interaction Between Behavioral and Physical Health in Rabbits
Behavioral and physical health are intricately interconnected in most animals, and the rabbit is no different. Medical or physical conditions can lead to anxiety and stress, and anxiety and stress can lead to physical illness. Rabbits are very prone to fe... moreBehavioral and physical health are intricately interconnected in most animals, and the rabbit is no different. Medical or physical conditions can lead to anxiety and stress, and anxiety and stress can lead to physical illness. Rabbits are very prone to fear, anxiety, and stress, especially when their husbandry is not appropriate and their environmental and behavioral needs are not met. Any rabbit presenting for acute behavior changes should be examined thoroughly for underlying medical conditions and the appropriateness of their environment examined equally closely. Physical health is unlikely to exist without behavioral and/or emotional health and vice versa. less
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The Relationship Between Aggression and Physical Disease in Dogs
Aggression is a very common behavioral problem in dogs. Although aggression can be part of the normal behavior of dogs, medical conditions can either trigger aggression as in the case of intracranial tumors or aggravate an existing aggression problem as i... moreAggression is a very common behavioral problem in dogs. Although aggression can be part of the normal behavior of dogs, medical conditions can either trigger aggression as in the case of intracranial tumors or aggravate an existing aggression problem as it happens with painful conditions. Therefore, it is essential to include an assessment of physical health in the diagnostic protocol of canine aggression.
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Veterinary Psychopharmacology
The stress response affects the central nervous system and multiple other systems in the body. Chronic mental and behavioral pathologies are associated with inflammation, dysfunctions in the immune response and an increased risk for other chronic inflamma... moreThe stress response affects the central nervous system and multiple other systems in the body. Chronic mental and behavioral pathologies are associated with inflammation, dysfunctions in the immune response and an increased risk for other chronic inflammatory and metabolic diseases. Psychiatric treatments alleviate fear, stress and anxiety, increase the qualify of life and lifespan for dogs and cats. Multiple safe psychoactive medications that can be used in association are available to help veterinary patients. Clinicians should understand the function of neurotransmitters and hormones on emotional processing, cognition and behavior, and drug mechanism of action so medication selection is appropriate for each individual patient. less
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Cat Inappropriate Elimination and its Interaction with Physical Disease
Inappropriate elimination or behavioral periuria/perichezia is likely the most reported feline behavioral problem worldwide. A change in behavior is often one of the early signs of physical disease and in addition can aggravate an existing behavioral resp... moreInappropriate elimination or behavioral periuria/perichezia is likely the most reported feline behavioral problem worldwide. A change in behavior is often one of the early signs of physical disease and in addition can aggravate an existing behavioral response. An initial determination of causation is essential; is it medical or behavioral, or a combination of both? Stress activates both the sympathetic adrenomedullary system for short-term responses and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis for long-term responses. Once medical problems have been treated or ruled out, attention should shift to minimizing and using various therapeutic options to help improve and/or resolve undesirable elimination problems. less
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Cantharidin
Cantharidin is the toxic component of blister beetles of the genus Epicauta. Cantharidin is a potent vesicant which causes blisters, erosions, and ulcerations in the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, and can cause myocardial necrosis. Blister beetles a... moreCantharidin is the toxic component of blister beetles of the genus Epicauta. Cantharidin is a potent vesicant which causes blisters, erosions, and ulcerations in the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, and can cause myocardial necrosis. Blister beetles are found over most of North America and specifically contaminate alfalfa at harvest. History of alfalfa feeding, with colic, dysuria, hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia are suggestive of blister beetle toxicosis. Myocardial damage causes increased serum cardiac troponin 1. Tentative diagnosis can be made by finding the beetles in feed or ingesta. Definitive diagnosis requires detection of cantharidin in urine or gastric contents. Treatment involves ending exposure, decreasing absorption, controlling pain, using gastroprotectants, and fluids and electrolyte replacement. Prognosis is guarded to poor. less
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Snake Envenomation
Snakebite envenomation (SBE) in horses can have devastating outcomes. Tissue damage, cardiotoxicity, coagulopathy, and neurotoxicity can be concerns with SBE. Understanding the actions of venom components is important in developing a successful treatment ... moreSnakebite envenomation (SBE) in horses can have devastating outcomes. Tissue damage, cardiotoxicity, coagulopathy, and neurotoxicity can be concerns with SBE. Understanding the actions of venom components is important in developing a successful treatment plan. Antivenom is the mainstay of treatment. Long-term deleterious effects can occur including cardiac dysfunction and lameness.
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Ionophores
Ionophores are a class of polyether antibiotics that are commonly used as anticoccidial agents and growth promotants in ruminant diets. Ionophores transport ions across lipid membranes and down concentration gradients, which results in mitochondrial destr... moreIonophores are a class of polyether antibiotics that are commonly used as anticoccidial agents and growth promotants in ruminant diets. Ionophores transport ions across lipid membranes and down concentration gradients, which results in mitochondrial destruction, reduced cellular energy production, and ultimately cell death. Cardiomyocytes are the primary target in equine patients when exposed to toxic concentrations and the clinical disease syndrome is related to myocardial damage. Animals can survive acute exposures but can have permanent heart damage that may result in acute death at future time points. Animals that survive a poisoning incident may live productive breeding lives, but physical performance can be greatly impacted. Animals with myocardial damage are at risk of sudden death and pose a risk to riders. less
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Use of Stem Cells for the Treatment of Musculoskeletal Injuries in Horses
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are used as a regenerative therapy in horses for musculoskeletal injury since the late 1990s and in some regions are standard of care for certain injuries. Yet, there is no Food and Drug Administration–approved MSC therapeuti... moreMesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are used as a regenerative therapy in horses for musculoskeletal injury since the late 1990s and in some regions are standard of care for certain injuries. Yet, there is no Food and Drug Administration–approved MSC therapeutic in the United States for horses. In humans, lack of regulatory approval in the United States has been caused by failure of late-phase clinical trials to demonstrate consistent efficacy, perhaps because of nonuniformity of MSC preparation and application techniques. This article discusses clinical evidence for musculoskeletal applications of MSCs in the horse and current challenges to marketing approval. less
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Equine Autologous Conditioned Serum and Autologous Protein Solution
Orthobiologics are used with increasing frequency in equine musculoskeletal disease to improve the quality of the repair tissue and prevent reinjury. Autologous blood-based products, or hemoderivatives, are made by processing the patient’s blood using dif... moreOrthobiologics are used with increasing frequency in equine musculoskeletal disease to improve the quality of the repair tissue and prevent reinjury. Autologous blood-based products, or hemoderivatives, are made by processing the patient’s blood using different systems to produce a final therapeutic product. Autologous conditioned serum (ACS) and autologous protein solution (APS) are commonly used to treat joint disorders and can also be used treat tendon and ligament injuries. Hemoderivatives contain increased concentrations of anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokines, and growth factors that help direct tissue healing and repair. The specifics of ACS and APS for treatment of musculoskeletal injuries are discussed. less
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Use of Biologics and Stem Cells in the Treatment of Other Inflammatory Diseases in the Horse
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are powerful immunomodulatory cells that act via multiple mechanisms to coordinate, inhibit, and control the cells of the immune system. MSCs act as rescuers for various damaged or degenerated cells of the body via (1) cytoki... moreMesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are powerful immunomodulatory cells that act via multiple mechanisms to coordinate, inhibit, and control the cells of the immune system. MSCs act as rescuers for various damaged or degenerated cells of the body via (1) cytokines, growth factors, and signaling molecules; (2) extracellular vesicle (exosome) signaling; and (3) direct donation of mitochondria. Several studies evaluating the efficacy of MSCs have used MSCs grown using xenogeneic media, which may reduce or eliminate efficacy. Although more research is needed to optimize the anti-inflammatory potential of MSCs, there is ample evidence that MSC therapeutics are worthy of further development. less
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Dedications
This issue is dedicated to Dr Alan Nixon, BVSc, MS, Diplomate, ACVS (1955–2023). Alan was a true horseman and a pioneer in the fields of equine musculoskeletal regenerative therapies and orthopedic surgery. He was an outstanding mentor, teacher, colleague... moreThis issue is dedicated to Dr Alan Nixon, BVSc, MS, Diplomate, ACVS (1955–2023). Alan was a true horseman and a pioneer in the fields of equine musculoskeletal regenerative therapies and orthopedic surgery. He was an outstanding mentor, teacher, colleague, and friend to so many of us that worked with him at Cornell University and beyond and will be greatly missed.
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Overview of Equine Stem Cells
Over the past 2 decades, equine veterinarians are turning increasingly to stem cell therapies to repair damaged tissues or to promote healing through modulation of the immune system. Research is ongoing into optimizing practices associated with stem cell ... moreOver the past 2 decades, equine veterinarians are turning increasingly to stem cell therapies to repair damaged tissues or to promote healing through modulation of the immune system. Research is ongoing into optimizing practices associated with stem cell product transport, dosage, and administration. Culture-expanded equine mesenchymal stem cell therapies seem safe, even when used allogeneically, but various safety concerns should be considered. Stem cells and cellular reprogramming tools hold great promise for future equine therapies. less
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Introduction to Equine Biologic and Regenerative Therapies
Regenerative medicine is defined as the process of replacing or regenerating cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish normal function. The use of regenerative medicine in equine practice to treat injured musculoskeletal tissues with limited capac... moreRegenerative medicine is defined as the process of replacing or regenerating cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish normal function. The use of regenerative medicine in equine practice to treat injured musculoskeletal tissues with limited capacity for intrinsic healing is growing. This article provides the practitioner with a brief and basic overview of the regenerative products currently used in equine practice.
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Considerations for the Use of Biologic and Regenerative Therapies in Equine Practice
Biologic and regenerative therapies are commonly used in equine practice, yet many questions remain among practitioners regarding their use and safety. The purpose of this issue is to explain what the main biologic and regenerative therapies are in terms ... moreBiologic and regenerative therapies are commonly used in equine practice, yet many questions remain among practitioners regarding their use and safety. The purpose of this issue is to explain what the main biologic and regenerative therapies are in terms of their composition and mechanism of action as well as evidence to date for how they should be used, how they interact with other treatment modalities, and how to monitor response to treatment. While most of the issue focuses on musculoskeletal applications, other indications for the use of biologic and regenerative therapies are discussed, including wounds, ophthalmologic conditions, and other inflammatory diseases. less
