Article Outline
Venomous Snakes of North America

Toxic Effects and Clinical Signs

Clinical Signs of Elapid Envenomation

Clinical Signs of Pit Viper Envenomation

Differential Diagnoses

Emergency Field Treatment / First Aid

Diagnostic Testing

In Hospital Treatment

Complications

Summary

References

Every phylum of the Animal Kingdom contains animals capable of producing toxic effects, either through envenomation or through poisoning. However, only a small number of these animals are sufficiently toxic to be of importance to veterinary clinicians. Arachnids, insects, toads, and snakes cause the most clinically significant problems for domestic and wild animals. Although in some cases specific antidotes (i.e., antivenins) exist for exposures to venomous animals, availability and cost of these antidotes often make their use in veterinary medicine unfeasible. Therefore, most cases of zootoxicosis in animals will be managed with symptomatic and supportive care.

Arthropoda

Araneae: Spiders - Introduction

• Widow Spiders (Latrodectus spp.):  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Recluse or Violin Spiders (Loxesceles spp.):  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Hobo Spiders (Tegenaria Agretis): Background, Toxicity, Treatment
• Funnel Web Spiders (Atrax and Hadronyche spp.):  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity
• Tarantulas
• Scorpiones - Scorpions:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Ixodida - Ticks:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Myriapoda: Centipedes and Millipedes
• Insecta - Insects:  Introduction
• Coleoptera - Meloidae (Blister Beetles): Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Coleoptera - Fireflies:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Coleoptera - Other Toxic Beetles
• Hymenoptera - Bees, Wasps, and Hornets:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Hymenoptera - Ants:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Hymenoptera - Sawflies:  Background, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Lepidoptera - Butterflies and Moths
• Phasmatodea - Walking Sticks

Amphibia, anura: toads

• Introduction
• Background
• Toxicokinetics
• Mechanism of action
• Toxicity
• Treatment

Reptilia

• Snakes:  Introduction
• Crotalids;  Background, Toxicokinetics, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Clinical effects, Treatment
• Elapids:  Background, Toxicokinetics, Mechanism of action, Toxicity, Treatment
• Lizards:  Background, Mechanism of action

The concept of a healthy home as promoted by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and other federal agencies involves not only aspects of the built environment, but also creating homes that are safe in terms of  toxic hazards such as carbon monoxide and pesticides.  This concept is one in which human health care providers, public health professionals, and veterinarians can actively collaborate because it seems clear that what is good for the human beings in the household in terms of toxic hazard reduction is also good for animals living in the household.

Article Outline

HEALTHY HOMES

Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professionals:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Clinicians

PRIMARY PREVENTION OF TOXIC EXPOSURE

• Pet Proofing and Child Proofing
• Judiciously Prescribe Medications
• Substitution: “Green” Chemistry

ANIMALS AS SENTINELS FOR HUMAN TOXIC EXPOSURE RISK

• Routes of Exposure
• Metabolic Fate/Susceptibility
• Latency

ACUTE TOXIC EXPOSURES

• Common Medications and Their Toxicity in Human Beings and Animals:  Acetaminophen, Aspirin, Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs
   
• Other Household/Environmental Sources of Acute Toxic Exposures
  Ethylene Glycol, Cleaning Products (Bleach, Ammonia, Others), Metaldehyde, Poisonous Plants, Rodenticides, PTFE Fumes

Identification of Exposure

CHRONIC TOXIC EXPOSURES AND HEALTH EFFECTS

• Cancer
  Noncancer Outcomes

CARBON MONOXIDE

Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professionals:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Clinicians

• AGENT
• ROUTES OF EXPOSURE AND METABOLIC FATE
• GROUPS AT RISK
• TOXICITY IN HUMAN BEINGS
• TOXICITY IN ANIMALS
• DIAGNOSIS
• MANAGEMENT OF CO POISONING
• Treatment in Human Beings
• TREATMENT IN ANIMALS

LEAD

• Other Names in Human Beings: Plumbism, Lead Colic
• Other Names in Animals: Lead Poisoning
• Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professionals:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Health Clinicians
• AGENT
• ROUTES OF EXPOSURE AND METABOLIC FATE
• GROUPS AT RISK
• TOXICITY IN HUMAN BEINGS
• TOXICITY IN ANIMALS
• DIAGNOSIS
• MANAGEMENT OF LEAD TOXICITY
• Treatment in Human Beings
• Treatment in Animals

PESTICIDES

• Toxic Effect of Organophosphate and Carbamate Insecticides
• Toxic Effect of Other Insecticides
• Toxic Effect of Other Pesticides
• Toxic Effect of Pesticide, Unspecified
• Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professionals:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Clinicians

INSECT REPELLENTS USED ON HUMAN BEINGS

• DEET
• Picaridin
• Pyrethroids/Permethrin
• Oil of Lemon Eucalyptus

PESTICIDES USED ON ANIMALS

• Pesticides With Low Relative Mammalian Toxicity
• Pesticides With Moderate Relative Mammalian Toxicity
• Pesticides With High Relative Mammalian Toxicity

GROUPS AT RISK

TOXICITY IN HUMAN BEINGS

TOXICITY IN ANIMALS

DIAGNOSIS

MANAGEMENT OF ANIMAL-RELATED PESTICIDE POISONING

ENVENOMATIONS

• Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professionals:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Clinicians
• HYMENOPTERAN ENVENOMATION
• LEPIDOPTERISM
• SPIDER BITES
• SCORPION STINGS
• REPTILE EVENOMATIONS - Pit Vipers, Elapids, Poisonous Lizards
• AMPHIBIAN INTOXICATIONS
• MARINE ENVENOMATIONS - Coelenterates, Anthozoa (Sea Anemones), Larvae (Sea Bather's Eruption), Echinodermata (Sea Urchins), Poisonous Fish, Sea Snakes

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS - Environmental Exposure to Harmful Algae and Toxins; Algae Bloom

Accidental Poisoning by Other Solid and Liquid Substances, Gases, and Vapors

Accidental Poisoning from Poisonous Foodstuffs and Poisonous Plants

Shellfish

Other Fish

Toxic Effect of Noxious Substances Eaten as Food

Fish and Shellfish

Accidental Poisoning from Poisonous Foodstuffs and Poisonous Plants

Other Fish

Chemical Poisoning and Other Contamination

Poisoning from Contaminated Water Supply

Key Points for Clinicians and Public Health Professional:  Public Health Professionals, Human Health Clinicians, Veterinary Clinicians

PRIMARY PREVENTION

EARLY DETECTION, SURVEILLANCE, AND EDUCATION

ACTIONS TO PREVENT EUTROPHICATION

CAUSATIVE AGENTSROUTES OF EXPOSURE AND METABOLIC FATE

GROUPS AT RISK

TOXICITY IN HUMAN BEINGS

TOXICITY IN ANIMALS - Wildlife, Companion Animals

DIAGNOSIS

MANAGEMENT OF HAB TOXICITY - Treatment in Human Beings, Treatment in Animals

References